Colombian Commercial Code: Registry Articles 26-47 | Althox

The Colombian Commercial Code, established by Decree 410 of 1971, serves as the cornerstone of commercial law in Colombia, regulating a vast array of business activities and entities. Among its most fundamental provisions are those pertaining to the Commercial Registry, detailed in Title III of its First Book. This section, encompassing Articles 26 through 47, lays down the legal framework for the registration of merchants, commercial establishments, and various acts and documents crucial for legal certainty and transparency in the business environment.

Understanding these articles is paramount for any individual or entity engaged in commercial activities within Colombia, as they define the obligations, procedures, and implications of formalizing one's commercial status. The registry ensures public access to vital business information, fostering trust and facilitating commercial transactions. This comprehensive analysis will delve into each article, elucidating its significance and practical application within the Colombian legal landscape.

Table of Contents

• Purpose and Public Nature of the Commercial Registry (Article 26)
• Administration and Supervision (Article 27)
• Entities and Acts Subject to Registration (Article 28)
• General Registration Rules and Procedures (Article 29)
• Proof of Registration (Article 30)
• Application for Registration (Article 31)
• Information Required for Registration (Article 32)
• Annual Renewal and Updates (Article 33)
• Registration of Companies (Article 34)
• Homonymy and Distinctive Names (Article 35)
• Verification of Information (Article 36)
• Penalties for Non-Registration and False Data (Articles 37 & 38)
• Registration of Commercial Books (Article 39)
• Authenticity of Documents (Article 40)
• Judicial and Administrative Orders (Article 41)
• Document Preservation (Article 42)
• File Management (Article 43)
• Loss or Destruction of Documents (Article 44)
• Registration Fees (Article 45)
• Transitional Provisions (Article 46)
• Scope of Application (Article 47)

The Colombian Commercial Code, particularly its provisions on the Registry, forms the bedrock of commercial operations, ensuring legal clarity and regulatory compliance.

Purpose and Public Nature of the Commercial Registry (Article 26)

Article 26 establishes the fundamental purpose and character of the Commercial Registry. It is designed to formalize the existence of merchants and commercial establishments, as well as to record all deeds, books, and documents mandated by law. This formalization is not merely an administrative step; it underpins the entire commercial ecosystem, providing a centralized and accessible source of information for all stakeholders.

Crucially, the article declares the Commercial Registry to be public. This public nature is a cornerstone of legal security, allowing any individual to examine records, take notes, and obtain copies. This transparency ensures that commercial activities are conducted openly, reducing information asymmetry and fostering a more equitable business environment. It protects third parties who transact with registered entities, as they can verify the legal status and key details of their commercial counterparts.

Article 26.- The commercial register shall be to bring the registration of traders and commercial establishments, as well as the registration of all deeds, books and documents on which the law exigiere that formality. The commercial register is public. Any person may examine the books and records as may be taken, take notes or acts of their seats and get copies of them.

Administration and Supervision (Article 27)

The administration of the Commercial Registry is entrusted to the Chambers of Commerce, which are private, non-profit organizations with public functions. These entities play a vital role in facilitating business development and formalization across Colombia. However, their operations are not entirely autonomous.

Article 27 specifies that the Superintendency of Industry and Commerce (SIC) holds the authority to determine the necessary books for the registry, the method of registration, and to issue instructions for the institution's improvement. This oversight ensures uniformity, efficiency, and adherence to national standards, preventing discrepancies between different Chambers of Commerce and maintaining the integrity of the overall system. The SIC's role is critical in harmonizing business regulations and compliance.

Article 27.- The commercial register shall be kept by chambers of commerce, but the Superintendency of Industry and Commerce shall determine the necessary books to meet that end, the way to registration and give instructions that tend to the improvement of the institution.

Entities and Acts Subject to Registration (Article 28)

Article 28 provides an exhaustive list of who and what must be registered in the Commercial Registry. This list is crucial for defining the scope of formal commercial activity and the obligations of those involved. It covers both natural and legal persons, as well as various legal acts and documents.

Key elements subject to registration include:

• Professional Merchants and Auxiliaries: Individuals engaged in trade and their support staff (commission agents, brokers, firm representatives) must register within one month of commencing work. This ensures accountability and legal recognition of their commercial status.
• Marriages and Liquidations of Conjugal Societies: When spouses, or one of them, are merchants, their marital status and any subsequent liquidation of their conjugal society must be registered. This is vital for determining the assets and liabilities tied to commercial activities, especially in cases of divorce or inheritance.
• Injunctions and Disqualifications: Legal measures against merchants, such as bans on doing business, precautionary agreements in bankruptcy, and appointments/removals of bankruptcy trustees, must be registered. This ensures public knowledge of any legal restrictions or changes in a merchant's capacity. Also, the possession of public offices that disqualify from trade, and general disabilities.
• Authorizations for Minors: If minors are legally authorized to engage in commerce, this authorization and its revocation must be recorded. This protects both the minor and third parties by making their commercial capacity public.
• Management of Assets/Business: Any act that creates, amends, or withdraws partial or general management of a merchant's assets or business must be registered. This includes powers of attorney and other forms of representation.
• Commercial Establishments and Branches: The opening, alteration, or transfer of ownership or administration of commercial establishments and their branches must be registered. This ensures clarity regarding the operational units of a business.
• Books of Account and Corporate Records: Essential corporate documents such as books of account, shareholder registers, minutes of meetings, and records of commercial companies' boards must be registered. This provides a formal record of corporate governance and financial transparency.
• Embargoes and Civil Rights Claims: Any embargoes or civil rights claims affecting registered commercial assets must be recorded. This protects creditors and ensures that potential buyers are aware of encumbrances.
• Company Constitution and Changes: The constitution, amendments, additions, and liquidation of commercial companies, along with the appointment and removal of legal representatives and liquidators, are mandatory registrations. Companies supervised by the Superintendence of Companies must also comply with additional registration requirements.
• Other Mandated Acts: Any other acts and documents whose registration is specifically mandated by law.

The modification by Act 222 of 1995 underscores the dynamic nature of commercial law, adapting to new realities and strengthening regulatory frameworks. The comprehensive nature of this list highlights the central role of the Commercial Registry in maintaining a structured and transparent business environment.

Article 28.- Must be registered in the Commercial Register:

1. Persons holding professional trade and its auxiliary, such as commission agents, brokers, representatives of national or foreign firms, who will do so within one month of the date they start work;

2. The marriage and the liquidation of conjugal societies, where a husband and wife or one of them is a merchant;

3. The injunction issued against merchants in the measures to be imposed on such a ban to do business, (the precautionary agreements and held within the bankruptcy proceeding, the bankruptcy trustee and the appointment and removal thereof; ) * the possession of public offices which disqualify the course of trade, and in general, disability or disabilities under the law to be a merchant;

4. Authorisations according to law, are granted to minors to engage in commerce, and the revocation thereof;

5. Any act by which they should do so, amend or withdraw the partial or general management of assets or business of the merchant:

6. The opening of commercial establishments and branches, and acts to alter or affect the ownership of them or their administration;

7. The books of account, the registration of shareholders, minutes of meetings and meetings of partners, as well as the boards of commercial companies;

8. Embargoes and related civil rights claims are subject to mutation commercial register;

9. The constitution, bylaws amendments or additions and liquidation of commercial companies, and the appointment of legal representatives and liquidators, and removal. Companies supervised by the Superintendence of Companies must also meet the formality of registration, the requirements of the laws that govern such surveillance, and

10. Other acts and documents whose company registration mandated by law.

* Modified. Act 222 of 1995.

General Registration Rules and Procedures (Article 29)

Article 29 outlines the procedural rules governing the Commercial Registry, ensuring consistency and clarity in the registration process. These rules are fundamental for the effective operation of the system, providing guidelines on jurisdiction, format, and the legal effect of registration.

The key rules include:

• Jurisdiction: Acts, contracts, and documents are registered with the Chamber of Commerce having jurisdiction over the place where they were entered or executed. If executed outside this jurisdiction, they must also be recorded in the Chamber for the place of execution or performance.
• Domicile-Based Registration: The registration of merchants and other entries not covered by the preceding rule is done at the Chamber of Commerce with jurisdiction over the domicile of the concerned or affected party. This centralizes a merchant's primary registration.
• Format of Registration: Registration is done in separate books by subject, typically in an extract format that summarizes the substance of the act, document, or event. However, the law may require or interested parties may request the inclusion of the full text.
• Timing and Effectiveness: Registration can be requested at any time if no special term is set by law. Crucially, acts and documents subject to registration only become effective against third parties from the date of their registration. This "opposability" principle highlights the protective function of the registry.

Article 29.- The commercial register will be subject to the following rules, subject to the special law establishing or decrees:

1. The acts, contracts and documents will be placed on the chamber of commerce with jurisdiction in the place where they were entered or executed, if we were to take place outside of such jurisdiction, be recorded on the camera also for the place of execution or performance;

2. The registration of traders and entries not provided for in the preceding paragraph shall be in the chamber of commerce with jurisdiction over the domicile of the person concerned or affected with them;

3. Registration will be in separate books by subject in the form of extract that gives reason for the substance of the act, document or event that you enroll, unless the law or require the inclusion of interested full text, and

4. A registration may be requested at any time, if the law does not set a special term for it, but the acts and documents subject to registration not become effective against third but from the date of registration.

Proof of Registration (Article 30)

Article 30 addresses how registration can be proven. It specifies two primary methods: a certificate issued by the respective Chamber of Commerce or judicial inspection of the Commercial Registry. These methods provide reliable and legally recognized ways to confirm the registration status of a merchant or commercial act.

The certificate is the most common and practical means, serving as official documentation of registration. Judicial inspection, while less frequent, offers a direct means for legal authorities to verify records, particularly in disputes or investigations. Both methods underscore the formal and verifiable nature of the Commercial Registry, reinforcing its role in legal certainty.

Article 30.- A registration shall be evidenced by a certificate issued by the respective chamber of commerce or by judicial inspection in the commercial register.

Application for Registration (Article 31)

Timeliness is a critical aspect of commercial registration, as outlined in Article 31. It sets specific deadlines for submitting registration applications, ensuring that commercial activities are formalized promptly after their commencement or establishment.

For individuals, the application must be submitted within one month from the date they begin commercial activities or open a branch/establishment. For companies, the legal representative must apply within one month of the deed of constitution or operating permit, attaching the relevant documents. This article also extends the same timeframe to condominiums or irregular companies, requiring all community members or partners to enroll. Adhering to these deadlines is crucial for avoiding penalties and ensuring legal compliance, as delays can lead to fines or other legal repercussions.

Article 31.- The registration application shall be submitted within one month of the date the individual began to engage in commerce or in the branch or business establishment was open. In the case of companies, the request for registration shall be made by the legal representative within one month following the date of the deed of constitution or of the operating permit, as appropriate, and shall accompany such documents. The same period prescribed in the first paragraph of this Article shall apply to condominiums or companies or irregular in this case must enroll all community members or partners.

Modern commercial registries increasingly rely on digital systems for efficient data management and transparency.

Information Required for Registration (Article 32)

To ensure a comprehensive and accurate record, Article 32 specifies the detailed information that must be included in a registration request. This data is essential for identifying merchants and establishments, understanding their scope of operations, and verifying their legal standing.

For merchants, the required information includes:

• Name, identity, nationality, and commercial activity.
• Address, domicile, and places of business operation.
• Liquid assets, details of owned real estate, and investment amount in commercial activity.
• Name of the person authorized to manage the business and their powers.
• Credit institutions with which transactions have been entered into.
• References from two registered dealers.

For commercial establishments, the request must indicate:

• Name, address, and principal activity.
• Name and address of the owner and factor (if any).
• Whether the premises are occupied by the owner or others.

The article concludes by stating that the person appearing in the record is presumed to be the owner of the establishment, emphasizing the legal weight of the registry. This detailed information allows for a robust and verifiable commercial record, crucial for legal and financial assessments.

Article 32.- The request for registration shall indicate:

1. The merchant's name, identity, nationality, activity or business that engages, address, address, place or places where it develops its business on an ongoing basis its liquid assets, details of real estate owned, amount of investment commercial activity, name of the person authorized to manage the business and its powers, credit institutions which had entered into transactions and references from two registered dealers and

2. Being a commercial establishment, your name address and principal activity that is dedicated and the name and address of the owner and the factor, if any, and if the premises it occupies himself or others. It is presumed owner of the establishment as well who appears in the record.

Annual Renewal and Updates (Article 33)

Registration is not a one-time event; it requires annual renewal and updates to ensure the information remains current and accurate. Article 33 mandates this continuous obligation, which is vital for maintaining the integrity and reliability of the Commercial Registry.

The registration must be renewed annually within the first three months of each year. Furthermore, registrants are obliged to inform the Chamber of Commerce about any changes, such as the loss of merchant status, changes of address, or other mutations related to their business. This also applies to branches, commercial establishments, and other registered acts and documents. This proactive updating mechanism ensures that the public record reflects the current reality of commercial entities, which is essential for legal transparency and business ethics.

Article 33.- The registration will be renewed annually, within three months of each year. The registrant shall inform the chamber of commerce for the loss of her as a trader, as any change of address and other mutations related to its business, in order to take note of this in the appropriate register. The same shall apply in respect of branch offices, commercial establishments and other acts and documents subject to registration.

Registration of Companies (Article 34)

Article 34 details the specific procedure for registering the incorporation of companies, their additions, and alterations. This process is distinct from individual merchant registration and involves several steps to ensure proper documentation and public record of corporate entities.

The procedure includes:

• Filing a certified copy of the respective deed at the Chamber of Commerce of the company's primary residence.
• Recording the filing in a special book, noting the company's name, class, domicile, deed number, date, and award notice.
• Applying the same procedure for recording minutes stating the appointment of legal representatives, liquidators, and their alternates.

This structured approach ensures that the legal formation and key governance changes of companies are formally documented and accessible, providing transparency for shareholders, creditors, and the general public. It's a critical component of corporate governance and legal compliance.

Article 34.- The record of incorporation of companies, their additions and alterations will be as follows:

1. A certified copy of the respective deed filed at the Chamber of Commerce of primary residence;

2. In a special book to be recorded, stating the delivery of the copies referred to in the preceding paragraph, specifying the name, class, domicile of the company, number of writing, the date and notice of award, and

3. The same procedure was adopted for recording the minutes stating the appointment of legal representatives, liquidators and their alternates.

Public access to commercial records, symbolized by a magnifying glass over legal text, ensures transparency and accountability in the business world.

Homonymy and Distinctive Names (Article 35)

Preventing confusion and ensuring distinct commercial identities is the focus of Article 35. It addresses the issue of homonymy, where two or more entities might share the same name, which could lead to market confusion and legal disputes.

Chambers of Commerce are prohibited from registering a merchant or business establishment with the same name as one already registered, unless the existing registration is canceled by a competent authority or has received a registration application. In cases where individuals have homonymous names, registration may proceed, but a distinctive name must be used to avoid confusion. This rule is crucial for protecting brand identity, consumer trust, and fair competition within the market, emphasizing the importance of trademark protection and brand identity.

Article 35.- Chambers of commerce shall not register a merchant or business establishment with the same name as one already registered, while it is not canceled by order of competent authority or who has received application for registration. In cases of homonymy of individuals may be provided with registration using a distinctive name to avoid confusion.

Verification of Information (Article 36)

To ensure the veracity of the information provided for registration, Article 36 grants Chambers of Commerce the authority to request additional verification. This power is essential for maintaining the accuracy and reliability of the Commercial Registry, preventing the registration of fraudulent or misleading data.

Chambers may require merchants to provide supporting documentation for the data indicated in their application, such as marital status, bank certificates, balances certified by public accountants, or certificates from other Chambers of Commerce. This due diligence process is a safeguard against misinformation, reinforcing the registry's role as a trustworthy source of commercial information.

Article 36.- The cameras may require the merchant to request enrollment stating summarily indicated in the application data to items of marital status, certificates of banks, authorized public accountants balances, certificates of other chambers of commerce or any other reliable means.

Penalties for Non-Registration and False Data (Articles 37 & 38)

The Commercial Code imposes significant penalties for non-compliance with registration requirements and for providing false information, underscoring the mandatory nature of the registry and the importance of data integrity. Articles 37 and 38 detail these consequences, acting as deterrents against informal or fraudulent commercial practices.

Article 37 states that individuals professionally engaged in trade without being registered will incur a fine, imposed by the Superintendency of Industry and Trade. This penalty also applies to those who fail to register a commercial establishment. The modification by Decree 2153 of 1992 increased the fine significantly, reflecting a stronger emphasis on formalization. The Deputy Superintendent for the promotion of competition is empowered to impose fines up to seventeen (17) legal minimum monthly wages, highlighting the seriousness of the offense.

Article 37.- The person carrying out professionally trade without being registered in the commercial register will incur a fine (up to ten thousand pesos) *, be imposed by the Superintendency of Industry and Trade, without prejudice to other legal sanctions. The same penalty applies when the registration or enrollment skip a commercial establishment. * Modified. Decree 2153 of 1992. 11 .- Special functions of the Deputy Superintendent for the promotion of competition: ... 5. Require persons professionally engaged in trade without being registered in the commercial register, fines up to the equivalent of seventeen (17) legal minimum monthly wage in effect at the time of imposition of the sanction.

Article 38 addresses the criminal implications of providing false data to the Commercial Registry. Such actions are punishable under the Penal Code, and the respective Chamber of Commerce is obligated to file a complaint with the judge. This provision emphasizes that the registry is not merely an administrative formality but a legal instrument whose integrity is protected by criminal law, ensuring the reliability of public commercial records.

Article 38.- The false data to be delivered to the commercial register shall be punished under the Penal Code. The respective chamber of commerce will be required to make complaint to the judge.

Registration of Commercial Books (Article 39)

Commercial books, such as accounting ledgers, are fundamental for tracking business operations and financial health. Article 39 specifies the procedure for their registration, ensuring their official recognition and evidentiary value.

The process involves:

• The book being signed by the secretary of the Chamber of Commerce, along with a certificate stating it has been recorded.
• The certificate must include the date, page of the corresponding record, the owner's details, its intended use, and the number of functional leaves, which will be initialed by the officer.
• A special book will record the fact of registration and the data mentioned above, under the secretary's signature.

This meticulous process ensures that commercial books are officially validated, providing a reliable record for financial audits, legal disputes, and tax purposes. It's a critical aspect of financial transparency and adherence to accounting standards.

Article 39.- The registration of trade books will be as follows:

1. The book will be signed by the secretary of the Chamber of Commerce a certificate has been recorded, with date and page of the corresponding record of the person to whom it belongs, the use to which it is intended and the number of functional leaves , which will be initialed by such officer, and

2. In a book for that purpose shall be recorded under the signature of the secretary, the fact of registration and the data referred to in the preceding paragraph.

Authenticity of Documents (Article 40)

Article 40 addresses the authenticity requirements for documents submitted for registration. It specifies that documents not inherently authentic or recognized by the parties must be presented personally to the secretary of the respective Chamber of Commerce. This requirement ensures that the identity of the submitter and the validity of the document can be verified, preventing fraudulent registrations.

Personal presentation provides an additional layer of security and verification, especially for documents that might otherwise lack immediate legal recognition. This helps maintain the integrity of the registry and the reliability of the information it contains.

Article 40.- Any documents subject to registration, not authentic by its very nature or recognized by the parties, should be presented personally by giving the secretary of the respective chamber.

Judicial and Administrative Orders (Article 41)

The Commercial Registry also serves as a repository for judicial and administrative orders that affect commercial entities. Article 41 outlines the procedure for registering these orders, ensuring that legal and administrative decisions impacting merchants are publicly recorded.

Such orders must be submitted in a certified copy to be filed in the respective file. Their delivery is recorded in a special book, which includes details like the title of the issuing officer, the class of ruling, and the date. This mechanism ensures that legal judgments and administrative directives are integrated into the public commercial record, providing comprehensive information about a merchant's legal standing and obligations.

Article 41.- The judicial and administrative orders to be recorded shall be submitted in a certified copy to be filed in the respective file. Delivery of such copies shall be recorded in a special book, which contain the title of the officer who issued the ruling, order, class, and date it.

Document Preservation (Article 42)

The long-term preservation of registered documents is essential for the historical accuracy and ongoing utility of the Commercial Registry. Article 42 addresses this by specifying methods for entering and preserving documents that are intended to be returned to the interested party.

Documents can be entered by copying their text into the respective books or by using photocopies or any other method that ensures legible preservation and reproduction. This flexibility allows for the adoption of modern technologies while maintaining the core requirement of clear and enduring records. The emphasis on legible preservation ensures that the information remains accessible and verifiable over time.

Article 42.- Documents subject to registration and intended to be returned to the person concerned shall be entered by copying your text in the respective books or photocopies or any other method that ensures a legible preservation and reproduction.

File Management (Article 43)

Efficient file management is crucial for organizing and retrieving commercial records. Article 43 mandates the creation of a dedicated file for each registered merchant, branch, or commercial establishment, ensuring a systematic approach to document storage.

In these files, copies of recorded documents are stored in chronological order. The article also permits the use of appropriate technical means for keeping these files, such as digital storage, provided that their accurate reproduction is certified by the president and secretary of the respective Chamber. This allows for modernization of record-keeping while maintaining strict standards of authenticity and accessibility, a key aspect of digital archiving and legal documentation.

Article 43.- Each trader, branch or business establishment registration, you open a file in which it is filed, in chronological order, copies of the documents recorded. Commercial log files may be kept by any appropriate technical means to ensure their accurate reproduction, provided that the president and secretary of the respective chamber certify the accuracy of the reproduction.

Loss or Destruction of Documents (Article 44)

Despite robust preservation efforts, the loss or destruction of a recorded document can occur. Article 44 provides a mechanism for replacing such documents, ensuring that the commercial record remains complete and legally valid even in unforeseen circumstances.

A lost or destroyed document may be replaced with a certificate from the Chamber of Commerce where it was recorded. This certificate must include the preserved text of the original document. The supplied document will have the same evidentiary value as the original, based on the terms or facts stated in the certificate. However, this provision does not apply to registered books, which have their own specific rules for integrity. This article provides a crucial safeguard for the continuity of legal records.

Article 44.- In case of loss or destruction of a recorded document may be replaced with a certificate of the Chamber of Commerce where it has been recorded in which to insert the text is preserved. The document supplied and will have the same evidential value as the original terms or facts stated in the certificate. The provisions of this Article shall not apply to books recorded.

Registration Fees (Article 45)

The operation and maintenance of the Commercial Registry incur costs, which are covered by fees. Article 45 simply states that each registration or certification will cause the salary fixed by law. This provision acknowledges the administrative and operational expenses associated with maintaining a comprehensive and accessible public registry.

The exact amount of these fees is determined by specific legal provisions, which may be updated periodically to reflect economic conditions and operational costs. These fees ensure the sustainability of the Chambers of Commerce in performing their vital public function.

Article 45.- Each registration or certification will cause the salary fixed by law.

Transitional Provisions (Article 46)

When new legislation comes into effect, it's crucial to address how existing legal acts are treated. Article 46 provides transitional provisions for documents registered under previous legislation, ensuring a smooth transition and legal continuity.

Acts and documents registered before the current Code came into force retain their value according to the law under which they were registered. However, regarding the effects of registration or the lack thereof, the provisions of the new Commercial Code apply. This ensures that while past acts remain valid, their legal implications moving forward are governed by the updated legal framework, providing clarity and preventing retroactive application where unintended.

Article 46.- The acts and documents registered under the legislation to come into force by this Code, will retain the value they have in accordance with the law, but as to the effects it has under the registration or the failure thereof, the provisions of this Code.

Scope of Application (Article 47)

Article 47 clarifies the specific scope of the provisions within this chapter, ensuring that they are applied correctly and do not override other specialized legal requirements. It states that the provisions of this chapter apply only to the commercial register, subject to any registration required by special laws.

This means that while the Commercial Code establishes the general framework for commercial registration, other specific laws may impose additional or different registration requirements for particular types of entities or activities. This hierarchical approach ensures that specialized regulations are respected while maintaining a foundational commercial registry system. Understanding this distinction is vital for comprehensive legal compliance and avoiding regulatory gaps.

Article 47.- The provisions of this Chapter shall apply only to commercial register, subject to the registration required by special laws....

In conclusion, Title III of the First Book of the Colombian Commercial Code, from Article 26 to Article 47, provides a comprehensive and robust framework for the commercial registry. These articles are indispensable for ensuring transparency, legal certainty, and accountability in the Colombian business landscape. By defining who must register, what information is required, the procedures to follow, and the consequences of non-compliance, the Code establishes a clear pathway for formalizing commercial activities. This formalization not only protects merchants and their interests but also safeguards third parties and contributes to the overall stability and trust within the national economy. Adherence to these provisions is not just a legal obligation but a cornerstone of responsible and sustainable commercial practice in Colombia.

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Fuente: Contenido híbrido asistido por IAs y supervisión editorial humana.